Indus Valley Civilization : A Complete Guide | One Liners Short Notes

(1).General Overview & Timeline of Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) existed from 2500 BCE to 1750 BCE.

It is also called the Harappan Civilization after its first discovered site, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan).
The term Harappan Civilization was given by John Marshall(1924).

It was a Bronze Age civilization that flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent.
The civilization covered parts of modern-day India and Pakistan.
The Indus Valley Civilization was first discovered in 1921 (Harappa) and 1922 (Mohenjo-Daro).

It was one of the world’s three earliest civilizations (Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Indus).
It was contemporary to the Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilizations.
Earliest evidence of urban planning in Indian history comes from IVC.

(2).Geographical Spread of the Indus Valley Civilization

Largest Extent – Covered around 1.25 million sq. km, making it one of the largest ancient civilizations.
Core Regions – Present-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.

Major Cities – Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan), Dholavira (Gujarat, India), Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India), Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India), and Lothal (Gujarat, India).
The largest site in India: Rakhigarhi (Haryana).
The largest site in Pakistan: Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh).

Southernmost site: Daimabad (Maharashtra, India).
Northern Boundary – Manda (Jammu & Kashmir, India).
Southern Boundary – Daimabad (Maharashtra, India).

Western Boundary – Sutkagen Dor (Balochistan, Pakistan, near Iran).
Eastern Boundary – Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India).
Major Rivers – Indus, Ghaggar-Hakra (Sarasvati), Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.

Trade Links – Mesopotamia, Oman, and Persia.
Satellite Settlements – Found in Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia.
Harappan cities were built near rivers for water supply and trade.

Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra (Saraswati) rivers were crucial to settlement growth.
Floods and river course changes influenced city planning and relocation.
Harappans practiced rainwater harvesting (Dholavira reservoirs)

(3).Major Sites of Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilization

Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan) – Discovered by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921; Cemetery H (double burial), Stone Male Torso, granaries.
Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan) –Largest Site, Discovered by R.D. Banerjee in 1922; had the Great Bath, Granary, Dancing Girl, Pashupati Seal.

Dholavira (Gujarat, India) – Had a unique water conservation system with reservoirs, Unique three-part city structure, stone houses, signboard with Harappan script,
Lothal (Gujarat, India) – Had the world’s earliest known dockyard.
Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India) – Largest known Indus site, with evidence of early urban planning and script.

Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India) – Had a ploughed field and fire altars, indicating agricultural and religious practices.
Banawali (Haryana, India) – Known for both pre-Harappan and Harappan phases,Had oval-shaped houses, different from standard grid pattern, Barley grains, citadel-lower town layout.
Chanhudaro (Sindh, Pakistan) – Had evidence of bead-making,toy manufacturing and craft industries.

Surkotada (Gujarat): Only site where horse remains have been found, evidence of domesticated horses.
Kot Diji (Pakistan): Pre-Harappan culture site showing early urbanization.
Balakot (Pakistan): Specialized in shell manufacturing.

Sutkagen Dor (Pakistan) – Westernmost site, indicating trade with Mesopotamia.
Mehrgarh (Pre-Harappan) – Dentistry evidence, earliest farming, terracotta figurines.

(4).Town Planning & Architecture of the Indus Valley Civilization

Grid Pattern Layout – Cities were built on a north-south, east-west grid pattern, with streets intersecting at right angles.
Divided City Structure – Cities had two sections: Citadel (fortified area for administration and elites) and Lower Town (residential and commercial areas).

Well-Planned Streets – Main roads were wide, up to 10 meters, with brick pavements and drainage.
Advanced Drainage System – Covered underground drains made of baked bricks, with regular cleaning shafts.
Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro) – A large, waterproof, community water tank, possibly for rituals.

Granaries – Large storehouses in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Lothal for surplus food storage.
Houses – Made of baked bricks, often with multiple stories and courtyards.
Brick sizes were standardized: 1:2:4 ratio.

Houses had private wells and bathrooms.
Private & Public Wells – Every house had access to water, ensuring hygiene.
Dockyard (Lothal) – Proof of maritime trade, with a well-planned port.
Dholavira was divided into three parts: Citadel, Middle Town, and Lower Town.

Mohenjo-Daro’s ‘Great Bath’ was likely used for ritual bathing.
Some houses had two floors, indicating advanced architecture

(5).Economic Activities & Trade of Indus Valley Civilization

Economy was based on agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship.
Major crops: Wheat, barley, peas, sesame, mustard, and cotton (world’s first cotton use).
Domesticated animals: Cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goat; no evidence of horses.

Agriculture was the main occupation.
First known civilization to grow cotton (Sumerians called it “Sindon”).
Used terracotta and bronze tools for farming and crafts.

Trade: Used standardized weights and measures for transactions.
Seals and scripts suggest trade with Mesopotamia (Sumerians).
Lothal was a major trade center with a dockyard

Trade links existed with Mesopotamia, Bahrain (Dilmun), and Afghanistan (Bactria).
The Sumerians referred to the Indus region as ‘Meluhha’.
Seals found in Mesopotamia indicate Harappan traders settled there.

Boats and bullock carts were key modes of transport for trade.
Standardized weights and measures for trade (16, 64, 160 units).
No evidence of coins; barter system was used.

Artisans made pottery, jewelry, and metal tools.

(6). Society & Religion of Indus Valley Civilization

Egalitarian society, with no evidence of kings or priests ruling.

No temples or religious buildings, unlike Mesopotamian or Egyptian civilizations.
Burials suggest belief in the afterlife, with goods buried alongside the dead.
Fire altars in Kalibangan indicate religious practices.

No clear evidence of large-scale warfare or weapons, suggesting a peaceful civilization.
People worshipped trees, animals (unicorn, bull), and Mother Goddess.
No temples have been discovered, unlike Mesopotamian ziggurats.

Swastika symbols found, later associated with Hinduism and Buddhism.
The ‘Pashupati’ seal suggests early worship of Shiva.
Tree worship was common, especially the Peepal tree.

Snake worship is suggested by terracotta figurines.
Unicorn and humped bull seals indicate possible totemic worship.
Phallic symbols and Yoni motifs suggest early Shaivism influence.

Red and black pottery designs may have had religious significance.

(7). Harappan Weights & Scripts

Weights followed a binary system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.).
Script was pictographic, consisting of about 400–600 signs.

Writing was mostly found on seals and pottery.
Most seals contain 5-6 characters with animal symbols.
Written from right to left, like Arabic.

The script remains undeciphered, limiting our knowledge about governance and culture.
The language of Harappans is unknown, possibly Proto-Dravidian.
Recent genetic studies suggest Harappans were ancestors of modern South Asians.

(8). Art & Culture of Harappan Civilization

Dancing Girl statue (Mohenjo-Daro) is made of bronze, proving metal casting skills.
Priest-King statue (Mohenjo-Daro) shows a bearded man with a trefoil-patterned shawl.

Pashupati seal shows a three-headed figure, possibly an early form of Lord Shiva.
Terracotta figurines of women suggest Mother Goddess worship.
Bead-making, shell work, and metalwork were advanced.

No temples or religious buildings found.
Animal motifs on seals include unicorn, bull, elephant, and rhinoceros.
Ornaments made of gold, silver, and semi-precious stones found at various sites.

Dice and board games have been found, suggesting leisure activities.
Musical instruments like drums and rattles were used.
Animal figurines suggest pet-keeping and animal worship.

(9). Technology & Achievements of Indus Valley Civilization

First known users of standardized weights and measures in the world.
First known drainage system in the world, with covered drains.

Advanced brick-making technology with a standard size ratio (1:2:4).
Developed plowing techniques, as seen in Kalibangan’s ploughed field.
Used carts with solid wheels, proving knowledge of transport.

Engineering – Constructed multi-storey buildings, public baths (Great Bath), and granaries with air ducts.
World’s earliest users of cotton cloth (confirmed at Mehrgarh and Mohenjo-Daro).

(10). Burial & Social Life of Indus Valley

Extended burial (laying body straight) was the most common method.
Some graves had pottery, jewelry, and other goods, indicating belief in afterlife.
Presence of varied house sizes suggests social hierarchy.

Evidence of community kitchens found in certain areas.

(12).Important Discoveries & Scholars of the Indus Valley Civilization

Harappa discovered in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni – first Indus site excavated.

Mohenjo-Daro discovered in 1922 by R.D. Banerjee – known for the Great Bath.
Dholavira excavated by J.P. Joshi – revealed advanced water management and city layout.
Rakhigarhi studied by Amrender Nath & Vasant Shinde – largest known Harappan site, DNA evidence linking to modern Indians.

Lothal discovered by S.R. Rao – famous for dockyard and trade links.
Kalibangan excavated by B.B. Lal – showed fire altars and ploughed fields.
Sir John Marshall – Director-General of ASI, credited with identifying the civilization.

Cotton usage confirmed at Mehrgarh and Mohenjo-Daro, making it the earliest known.

(13).Administration & Governance

Absence of palaces or large temples suggests a decentralized government.
Uniformity in town planning indicates a strong central authority.

Seals suggest regulation of trade and ownership marking.
Weights and measures were standardized across all major cities.

Legacy of Indus Valley Civilization

Concepts of urban planning continued in later Indian cities.
Drainage and water conservation techniques influenced later civilizations.
Cultural elements like bead-making, pottery, and trade persisted.

Some Indus symbols resemble later Brahmi script (India’s first writing system).
Military & Defense
No large-scale weapons or armies found, indicating a peaceful society.

Cities were well-planned with defensive walls, possibly for flood protection.
Spears, arrows, and stone slings suggest basic hunting and protection tools.

Unsolved Mysteries & Theories

Harappan script remains undeciphered, limiting knowledge about governance.

Sudden decline theories range from climate change to economic breakdown.
Possible links to later Vedic culture through language and traditions.
Whether Harappans were peaceful or had organized defense forces is debated.

Modern Relevance & Preservation

Dholavira was added to UNESCO’s World Heritage list in 2021.

Excavations continue at Rakhigarhi, revealing new insights.
Several Harappan sites are endangered due to urbanization.
Rakhigarhi (Haryana) is the largest Harappan site in India.

Evidence of dairy production found at Kotada Bhadli (Gujarat).

Theories on the Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

The civilization declined around 1750 BCE.

Possible Reasons :
Aryan Invasion Theory (Mortimer Wheeler) – Suggested that Aryans invaded and destroyed Indus cities, but later evidence disputes large-scale invasion.
Climate Change & Drought (Giosan et al.) – Weakening monsoons led to droughts, reducing water supply and forcing migration.
Shift in River Course (R.L. Raikes & Amal Kar) – The drying up or shifting of rivers like the Ghaggar-Hakra (Sarasvati) disrupted agriculture and settlements.
Flooding (Robert Raikes) – Catastrophic floods caused by tectonic activity led to abandonment of cities.
Epidemics & Disease (David Reich) – Contagious diseases might have reduced the population.
Decline in Trade (Jonathan Mark Kenoyer) – Collapse of Mesopotamian trade links weakened the economy.
Social & Political Breakdown – Internal conflicts or administrative failures may have contributed.
No single theory is conclusive; multiple factors likely played a role.

Miscellaneous Facts

No evidence of horses, but domesticated animals included cattle, buffalo, and sheep.
No swords or iron tools found, proving they used copper and bronze weapons.
Indus seals were used for trade identification, made of steatite.
Harappans did not use coins, relied on barter trade.
First evidence of stepwells found at Dholavira.
Flood layers at Mohenjo-Daro suggest natural disasters contributed to its decline.
Evidence of dental drills at Mehrgarh, hinting at early medical practice.
Dice and board games suggest recreational life.
Unicorn seals – The unicorn, a mythical animal, was the most common motif, even more than real animals.
Button seal discovery – At Mohenjo-Daro, a button-like seal was found, which may indicate clothing fasteners or symbolic items.
Sutkagendor was a coastal trade post near the Iran border.
Left-handedness evidence – Some tools and pottery show signs that left-handed artisans existed.
No rice cultivation evidence at core sites – Except at Lothal and Rangpur, which showed traces of wild rice.
Evidence of syphilis – Some skeletal remains show possible early STD infections, rarely discussed in textbooks.
No mother-infant burials – Unlike many ancient cultures, no emotional or ritualistic burials like mother-child pairs were found.
Multi-purpose seals – Apart from trade, seals might have been used as amulets, ID tags, or legal stamps.
Reconstruction of urban layers – Mohenjo-Daro had at least 7 layers of rebuilding, showing resilience to floods or invasions.
Amputation evidence – Bones show signs of healed limb removal, suggesting basic surgical knowledge.
Etched carnelian beads – Manufactured using complex heat-treatment and etching, a sign of high craftsmanship.
Female figurines with plants growing from womb – Found in Mohenjo-Daro, likely symbols of fertility and agriculture.
Earliest known "zoning" in cities – Dholavira had distinct zones: citadel, middle town, and lower town – like modern city planning.
IVC ended around 1750 BCE, marking the beginning of post-Harappan cultures.